How did the cabinet system of the Ming Dynasty work?

During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the way the government operated changed significantly, and one of the most important developments was the rise of the Grand Secretariat Neige, 内阁). It began as a small team that gave advice to help the emperor manage his daily workload, but over time it grew into a central force behind policy decisions—even though it never held official authority.

Historical Development

The Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368–1398) eliminated the position of Chancellor so he could keep all power for himself, but this created a serious problem because the amount of paperwork and decisions became too much for any single person to handle alone. Later on, the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) addressed this issue by selecting trusted scholar-officials—usually top graduates from the Hanlin Academy—to serve as Grand Secretaries, who worked inside the palace reading reports, suggesting responses, and drafting imperial orders; although they held low official ranks, their close access to the emperor gave them real influence over state affairs.

Institutional Framework

Unlike the Six Ministries, which were formal parts of the government, the Grand Secretariat was an informal group that reported directly to the emperor, and its main characteristics included a small number of members—typically between three and seven Grand Secretaries—who were personally chosen by the ruler, with the most senior among them often taking on the role of Chief Grand Secretary Shoufu) and effectively acting as the leader of the administration; nearly all of these officials came from the Hanlin Academy, which ensured they were highly educated and followed traditional Confucian values, and even though their official status was only fifth-rank—much lower than the heads of major ministries—their actual power came from their proximity to the throne and their control over key documents.

Primary Responsibilities

The Grand Secretariat carried out three core duties that kept the government running: first, it reviewed all incoming reports from local and central offices and prepared draft replies—known aspiaoni—by attaching small notes with suggested responses for the emperor’s final approval; second, it offered guidance on a wide range of issues such as tax collection, military planning, diplomatic relations, and appointments to government posts, and this advisory role became especially powerful when the emperor was young, uninvolved, or absent from daily governance; third, it wrote official decrees, public announcements, and formal letters, which meant it shaped not only what the government decided but also how those decisions were communicated to the public and officials.

Constraints and Political Tensions

Despite gaining considerable influence, the Grand Secretariat always worked under serious limitations: it had no power to give direct orders to the Six Ministries, so it relied on cooperation that was not always guaranteed; its members stayed in office only as long as the emperor trusted them, and many lost their positions suddenly—or even faced exile or execution—when court politics shifted against them; and starting in the middle of the Ming period, palace eunuchs in the Office of Supervising Secretaries Sili Jian) gained the right to review and sometimes change the emperor’s final decisions after seeing the Secretariat’s suggestions, which led to constant rivalry between the scholar-officials and the eunuch staff who controlled the inner palace.

Institutional Trajectory and Decline

From the 15th through the late 16th century, the Grand Secretariat became the main center for managing state business, and figures like Zhang Juzheng (1525–1582)—who served as Chief Grand Secretary early in the Wanli Emperor’s reign—used the position to push through major changes in taxation, personnel management, and administrative efficiency, proving how effective the role could be when backed by strong leadership; however, in the dynasty’s final decades, the system began to fall apart due to bitter disputes among political groups such as the Donglin Society, increasing interference by powerful eunuchs, and emperors who withdrew from active rule, and because the Secretariat lacked a firm legal foundation, it could not withstand these pressures and gradually lost its ability to function effectively.

Conclusion

The story of the Grand Secretariat shows how unofficial groups can become essential in rigid systems like imperial China’s: it started as simple assistance for an overloaded ruler but ended up directing much of the empire’s daily operations; even without formal legal power, it controlled the flow of information and earned respect through scholarly expertise and close ties to the throne; ultimately, its history illustrates that in Chinese governance, real authority often depended less on titles and more on access, procedure, and personal relationships.